International Crisis Group: Nigeria

Head of state: President Olusegun Obasanjo, May 1999, re-elected May 2003. Umaru Yar'Adua President-Elect following April 2007 polls.

British influence and control over what would become Nigeria grew through 19th century. Country named after Niger River, following "amalgamation" of then Northern and Southern provinces by Frederick Lugard, who became first governor-general of the British colony in 1914.

British authorities carved out three regions with different ethnic compositions and economic patterns in 1939, superseding North-South divide with new tripartite administrative structure. Each region had one dominant ethnic group: Hausa-Fulani in Northern region; Yoruba in Western Region; and Igbo in Eastern Region.

Series of constitutions after WWII granted Nigeria greater autonomy until it gained independence as federation 1 October 1960, with Northerner Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as prime minister. Pre-colonial Nigeria generally saw little relationship between ethnicity and units of government, but ethnic identities strengthened during colonial period and came to play substantial role in post-colonial history.

Constitutional republic proclaimed 1963 and 1964 Lyttleton Constitution subsequently established four-region federal structure comprising North, East, West and Mid-West. But Nigeria's first attempt at democracy collapsed 1966, victim of political opportunism, ethnic demagoguery and military intrusion. Two bloody military coups that year: January killing of Balewa by mostly Eastern military officers provoked July reprisal killing of first military ruler, Easterner Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi by Northern officers. These were followed by large-scale ethnic killings of mostly Easterner residents in North, and political disputes between Federal and Eastern region governments.

Northern-installed military ruler Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon instituted twelve-state system, six in north, six in south 27 May 1967. Three days later, Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu-Ojukwu, military governor of Eastern Region, countered by declaring secession of region as Republic of Biafra. Thus began civil war which cost over a million lives and lasted until January 1970, when Biafra surrendered to Federal forces. General Gowon granted general amnesty avoiding probable widespread reprisal killings.

Gowon ousted in 1975 coup and succeeded by General Murtala Mohammed, himself assassinated six months later. General Olusegun Obasanjo, who emerged as new helmsman, held elections and relinquished office 1979. After brief spell of civilian rule, military rule returned following coup led by Major General Muhammadu Buhari December 1983. Buhari waged “War Against Indiscipline” which sought to punish corrupt office-holders, but his lack of interest in democracy and heavy-handed methods of his security agencies led to another military coup August 1985, headed by General Ibrahim Babangida.

Babangida implemented structural adjustment programme, the negative impacts of which on citizens’ welfare fuelled mass discontent. Interminable amendments of his programme for return to civil rule created serious crisis of confidence. His June 1993 annulment of a general election, widely believed to have been won by multi-milllionaire Moshood Abiola, provoked public protests, forcing him to turn authority over to largely-civilian Interim National Government led by Chief Ernest Shonekan. On 17 November, General Sani Abacha, defence minister and Babangida’s former chief of staff, forced Shonekan’s resignation, took power himself and dissolved the democratic structures that had been instituted at state and local levels under Babangida’s transition programme.

May 1994 multi-ethnic alliance of politicians and retired officers formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), seeking to install Abiola in office. A month later, Abiola declared self as rightful president, but promptly arrested and charged with treason. As public protests and riots multiplied in South-Western cities, security forces killed dozens, three media companies were shut, unions were banned and their leaders dismissed, "unknown assailants" attacked NADECO and other pro-democracy activists, forcing some to flee into exile.

From mid-1990s, country began to witness proliferation of non-state armed groups, pioneered by Yoruba-self-determination group, O’odua Peoples Congress (OPC). In South-East, surge of crime and insecurity in late 1990s prompted traders in Aba, one of region's biggest market towns, to sponsor vigilante group "Bakassi Boys". Elsewhere, notably Anambra and Imo states, similar groups of young men, contracted to provide private security, soon spiralled out of control or were used by their sponsors as private militias against rivals.

General Abacha died June 1998; succeeded by General Abdulsalami Abubakar, who released most political prisoners including Obasanjo who had been jailed on charges of coup plotting. Abiola however died July 1998 while still in junta’s custody. Coalition of mostly Northern retired military officers and politicians drafted Obasanjo to run for 1999 presidency which they enabled him to win. Obasanjo re-elected 2003; but parliament defeated his 2006 attempt to engineer constitutional amendment that would have enabled him to run for third term.

April 2007 elections should see first transition from one civil administration to another, with Umaru Yar'Adua of ruling People's Democratic Party president-elect. Polling was marred by intense political violence and tension. International observers, local monitors and civil society criticised results; opposition called for new elections.